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Improving Systems, Practices, and Outcomes

Research and Studies on Inclusion

Preschool Inclusion Survey

Fact Sheets

Fact sheets can raise awareness, support planning, offer strategies, and clarify IDEA data and regulatory requirements for improving and increasing inclusive practices.

NPDCI Research Syntheses

The following two research syntheses were produced by the National Professional Development Center on Inclusion (NPDCI), and provide brief descriptions and supporting references for evidence-based and promising practices that support early childhood inclusion

Selected Bibliography on Inclusion

  • Anderson, K.P. (2021). The relationship between inclusion, absenteeism, and disciplinary outcomes for students with disabilities. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 43(1), 32–59. https://doi.org/10.3102/0162373720968558
  • Bancroft, J.C., Barton, E., & Schulte, L.E. (2023). Using the system of least prompts to teach pretend play to preschoolers with developmental disabilities in contexts with their peers. Journal of Early Intervention, 46(4), 509–525. https://doi.org/10.1177/10538151231186896
  • Barton, E.E., & Smith, B.J. (2015). Advancing High-Quality Preschool Inclusion: A Discussion and Recommendations for the Field: A Discussion and Recommendations for the Field. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 35(2), 69–78. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271121415583048
  • Blazer, C. (2017). Review of the research on inclusive classrooms: Academic and social outcomes for students with and without disabilities; best practices; and parents' perceptions of benefits and risks. Research Services, Miami-Dade County Public Schools. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED587808
  • Buysse, V., Goldman, B.D., & Skinner, M.L. (2002). Setting effects on friendship formation among young children with and without disabilities. Exceptional Children, 68(4), 503–517. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440290206800406
  • Buysse, V., Wesley, P. W., Bryant, D., & Gardner, D. (1999). Quality of early childhood programs in inclusive and noninclusive settings. Exceptional Children, 65(3), 301–314. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440299906500302
  • Cole, D.A., & Meyer, L.H. (1991). Social integration and severe disabilities: a longitudinal analysis of child outcomes. The Journal of Special Education, 25(3), 340–351. https://doi.org/10.1177/002246699102500306
  • Cole, S.M., Murphy, H.R., Frisby, M.B., Grossi, T.A., & Bolte, H.R. (2021). The relationship of special education placement and student academic outcomes. The Journal of Special Education, 54(4), 217–227. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022466920925033
  • Cross, A.F., Traub, E.K., Hutter-Pishgahi, L., & Shelton, G. (2004). Elements of successful inclusion for children with significant disabilities. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 24(3), 169–183. https://doi.org/10.1177/02711214040240030401
  • Daugherty, S., Grisham-Brown, J., & Hemmeter, M.L. (2001). The effects of embedded skill instruction on the acquisition of target and nontarget skills in preschoolers with developmental delays. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 21(4), 213–221. https://doi.org/10.1177/027112140102100402
  • DEC/NAEYC. (2009). Early childhood inclusion: A joint position statement of the Division for Early Childhood (DEC) and the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC). Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, FPG Child Development Institute. Retrieved from https://fpg.unc.edu/publications/early-childhood-inclusion-joint-position-statement-division-early-childhood-dec-and
  • Diamond, K.E., & Huang, H.H. (2005). Preschoolers' ideas about disabilities. Infants & Young Children, 18(1), 37–46. https://doi.org/10.1097/00001163-200501000-00005
  • Division for Early Childhood. (2014). DEC recommended practices in early intervention/early childhood special education 2014. Retrieved from http://ectacenter.org/decrp/decrp.asp
  • Fabrizi, S., Tilman, A. L., Donald, E., Balsamo, N., & Connor, A. (2023). SEE Me therapeutic playgroup: A teaming model to promote parent-child interactions. Journal of Early Intervention, 46(3), 356–374. https://doi.org/10.1177/10538151231166594
  • Freeman, S.F.N., & Alkin, M.C. (2000). Academic and social attainments of Children with mental retardation in general education and special education settings. Remedial and Special Education, 21(1), 3–26. https://doi.org/10.1177/074193250002100102
  • Frazeur Cross, A., Traub, E.K., Hutter-Pishgahi, L., & Shelton, G. (2004). Elements of Successful Inclusion for Children with Significant Disabilities. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 24(3), 169–183. https://doi.org/10.1177/02711214040240030401
  • Fryxell, D. & Kennedy, C.H. (1995). Placement along the continuum of services and its impact on students' social relationships. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 20(4), 259–269. https://doi.org/10.1177/154079699602000403
  • Gena, A. (2006). The effects of prompting and social reinforcement on establishing social interactions with peers during the inclusion of four children with autism in preschool. International Journal of Psychology, 41(6), 541–554. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207590500492658
  • Green, K.B., Terry, N.P., & Gallagher, P.A. (2014). Progress in language and literacy skills among children with disabilities in inclusive early reading first classrooms. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 33(4), 249–259. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271121413477498
  • Grisham-Brown, J., Cox, M., Gravil, M. & Missall, K. (2010) Differences in child care quality for children with and without disabilities. Early Education and Development, 21(1), 21–37. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409280902783491
  • Grisham-Brown, J., Pretti-Frontczak, K., Hawkins, S.R., & Winchell, B.N. (2009). Addressing early learning standards for all children within blended preschool classrooms. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 29(3), 131–142. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271121409333796
  • Grisham-Brown, J., Schuster, J.W., Hemmeter, M.L., & Collins, B.C. (2000). Using an embedding strategy to teach preschoolers with significant disabilities. Journal of Behavioral Education, 10(2–3), 139–162. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1016688130297
  • Guralnick, M. J. (2001). Early childhood inclusion: focus on change. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Company.
  • Guralnick, M., Conner R., Hammond, M., Gottman, J., & Kinnish, K. (1996). Immediate effects of mainstreamed settings on the social interactions and social integration of preschool children. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 100(4), 359–377. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8718991/
  • Holahan, A., & Costenbader, V. (2000). A comparison of developmental gains for preschool children with disabilities in inclusive and self-contained classrooms. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 20(4), 224–235. https://doi.org/10.1177/027112140002000403
  • Innes, F.K., & Diamond, K.E. (1999). Typically developing children's interactions with peers with disabilities: relationships between mothers' comments and children's ideas about disabilities. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 19(2), 103–111. https://doi.org/10.1177/027112149901900204
  • Kasari, C., Freeman, S.F., Bauminger, N., & Alkin, M.C. (1999). Parental perspectives on inclusion: effects of autism and down syndrome. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 29(4), 297–305. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1022159302571
  • Katz, J. & Mirenda, P. (2002). Including students with developmental disabilities in general education classrooms: social benefits. International Journal of Special Education, 17(2), 13–36. Retrieved from https://scholar.googleusercontent.com/scholar?q=cache:oslZo2WQCfcJ:scholar.google.com/&hl=en&as_sdt=0,34
  • Justice, L.M., Logan, J.A.R., Lin, T.J., & Kaderavek, J.N. (2014). Peer effects in early childhood education: testing the assumptions of special-education inclusion. Psychological Science, 25(9), 1722–1729. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797614538978
  • Lieber, J., Hanson, M.J., Beckman, P.J., Odom, S. L., Sandall, S.R., Schwartz, I.S., Horn, E., & Wolery, R. (2000). Key Influences on the initiation and implementation of inclusive preschool programs. Exceptional Children, 67(1), 83–98. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440290006700106
  • Nahmias, A.S., Kase, C., & Mandell, D.S. (2012). Comparing cognitive outcomes among children with autism spectrum disorders receiving community-based early intervention in one of three placements. Autism, 18(3), 311–320. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361312467865
  • Odom, S.L. (2000). Preschool inclusion: what we know and where we go from here. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 20(1), 20–27. https://doi.org/10.1177/027112140002000104
  • Odom, S. L. (2008). The tie that binds: evidence-based practice, implementation science, and outcomes for children. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 29(1), 53–61. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271121408329171
  • Odom, S.L., Buysse, V., & Soukakou, E. (2011). Inclusion for young children with disabilities: a quarter century of research perspectives. Journal of Early Intervention, 33(4), 344–356. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053815111430094
  • Odom, S.L., DeKlyen, M., & Jenkins, J.R. (1984). Integrating handicapped and nonhandicapped preschoolers: Developmental impact on the nonhandicapped children. Exceptional Children, 51(1), 41–48. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440298405100106
  • Odom, S.L., Hanson, M.J., Lieber, J., Marquart, J., Sandall, S., Wolery, R., Horn, E., Schwartz, I., Beckman, P., Hikido, C., & Chambers, J. (2001). The costs of preschool inclusion. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 21(1), 46–55. https://doi.org/10.1177/027112140102100104
  • Odom, S.L., Parrish, T.B., & Hikido, C. (2001). The costs of inclusive and traditional special education preschool services. Journal of Special Education Leadership, 14(1), 33–41. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ627947
  • Odom, S.L., Vitztum, J., Wolery, R., Lieber, J., Sandall, S., Hanson, M. J., Beckman, P., Schwartz, I., & Horn, E. (2004). Preschool inclusion in the United States: A review of research from an ecological systems perspective. Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 4(1), 17–49. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1471-3802.2004.00016.x
  • Odom, S.L., Zercher, C., Li, S., Marquart, J.M., Sandall, S., & Brown, W.H. (2006). Social acceptance and rejection of preschool children with disabilities: A mixed-method analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98(4), 807–823. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.98.4.807
  • Okagaki, L., Diamond, K.E., Kontos, S.J., & Hestenes, L.L. (1998). Correlates of young children's interactions with classmates with disabilities. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 13(1), 67–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0885-2006(99)80026-X
  • Purcell, M.L., Horn, E., & Palmer, S. (2007). A qualitative study of the initiation and continuation of preschool inclusion programs. Exceptional Children, 74(1), 85–99. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440290707400105
  • Rafferty, Y., & Griffin, K.W. (2005). Benefits and risks of reverse inclusion for preschoolers with and without disabilities: perspectives of parents and providers. Journal of Early Intervention, 27(3), 173–192. https://doi.org/10.1177/105381510502700305
  • Rafferty, Y., Piscitelli, V., & Boettcher, C. (2003). The impact of inclusion on language development and social competence among preschoolers with disabilities. Exceptional Children, 69(4), 467–479. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440290306900405
  • Rea, P.J., McLaughlin, V.L., & Walther-Thomas, C. (2002). Outcomes for students with learning disabilities in inclusive and pullout programs. Exceptional Children, 68(2), 203–222. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440290206800204
  • Rhoad-Drogalis, A., & Justice, L. M. (2020). Is the proportion of children with disabilities in inclusive preschool programs associated with children's achievement? Journal of Early Intervention, 42(1), 83–96. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053815119873100
  • Robertson, J., Green, K., Alper, S., Schloss, P.J., & Kohler, F. (2003). Using peer-mediated intervention to facilitate children's participation in inclusive child care activities. Education & Treatment of Children, 26(2), 182–197. https://www.jstor.org/stable/42899744
  • Rose, D.F., & Smith, B.J. (1993). Preschool mainstreaming: Attitude barriers and strategies for addressing them. Young Children, 48(4), 59–62. https://www.jstor.org/stable/42725462
  • Schepis, M.M., Reid, D.H., Ownbey, J., & Parsons, M.B. (2001). Training support staff to embed teaching within natural routines of young children with disabilities in an inclusive preschool. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 34(3), 313–327. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2001.34-313
  • Smith, B.J., & Rose, D.F. (1993). Administrator's policy handbook for preschool mainstreaming. Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books.
  • Smith, B.J., Salisbury, C.L., & Rose, D.F. (1992). Policy options for preschool mainstreaming. CASE in Point, 7, 17–30.
  • Soukakou, E.P. (2012). Measuring quality in inclusive preschool classrooms: Development and validation of the Inclusive Classroom Profile (ICP). Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 27(3), 478–488. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2011.12.003
  • Strain, P.S., & Bovey, E.H. (2011). Randomized, controlled trial of the LEAP model of early intervention for young children with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 31(3), 133–154. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271121411408740
  • Strain, P.S., & Hoyson, M. (2000). The need for longitudinal, intensive social skill intervention: LEAP follow-up outcomes for children with autism. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 20(2), 116–122. https://doi.org/10.1177/027112140002000207
  • Steed, E.A., Rausch, A., Strain, P.S., Bold, E., & Leech, N. (2022). High-quality inclusion in preschool settings: a survey of early childhood personnel. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 43(2), 142–155. https://doi.org/10.1177/02711214211063921
  • Van Rhijn, T., Osborne, C., Ranby, S., Maich, K., Hall, C., Rzepecki, L., & Hemmerich, A. (2019). Peer play in inclusive child care settings: Assessing the impact of Stay, Play, & Talk, a peer-mediated social skills program. Child Care in Practice, 27(3), 224–238. https://doi.org/10.1080/13575279.2019.1588707
  • Venn, M.L., Wolery, M., Werts, M.G., Morris, A., DeCesare, L.D., & Cuffs, M.S. (1993). Embedding instruction in art activities to teach preschoolers with disabilities to imitate their peers. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 8(3), 277–294. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0885-2006(05)80068-7
  • Warren, S.R., Martinez, R.S., & Sortino, L.A. (2016). Exploring the Quality Indicators of a Successful Full-Inclusion Preschool Program. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 30(4), 540–553. https://doi.org/10.1080/02568543.2016.1214651
  • Zakai-Mashiach, M., Dromi, E., & Al-Yagon, M. (2020). Social inclusion of preschool children with ASD: The role of typical peers. The Journal of Special Education, 55(1), 13–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022466920926132