Fact Sheet: Preschool Inclusion

U.S. Department of Education (2022). 2021 IDEA part B child count and educational environment. Retrieved from https://data.ed.gov/dataset/idea-section-618-state-part-b-child-count-and-educational-environments/resources

Summary: In 2021, across all states, a total of 48.54% of children ages 3–5 years served under IDEA received their special education and related services in a regular EC classroom for at least 10 hours per week.

U.S. Department of Education. (1987). Annual report to congress on the implementation of the Education of the Handicapped Act. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from https://archive.org/details/ninthannualrepor00unit

Summary: During 1984–1985, across all states, a total of 36.8% of children ages 3–5 years served under IDEA received their special education and related services in a regular EC classroom.

Buysse, V., Goldman, B.D., & Skinner, M.L. (2002). Setting effects on friendship formation among young children with and without disabilities. Exceptional Children, 68(4), 503–517. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440290206800406

Summary: Typically developing children in specialized classrooms had more friends than their peers with disabilities. However, typically developing children in child care programs did not have more friends than their peers with disabilities. The authors noted that when children with disabilities have access to multiple playmates, they have more opportunities to develop social and play skills. Also, child care teachers in this study reported that young children with disabilities in inclusive settings had friends who were typically developing.

Cross, A.F., Traub, E.K., Hutter-Pishgahi, L., & Shelton, G. (2004). Elements of successful inclusion for children with significant disabilities. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 24(3), 169–183. https://doi.org/10.1177/02711214040240030401

Summary: The authors examined the teacher practices and parent beliefs related to inclusion of several young children with disabilities. The authors found that peers of children with disabilities in inclusive classrooms were helpful. Parents and teachers reported the peers were learning compassion and empathy. Furthermore, the authors noted that individualized instruction was specifically related to learning and achieving goals for the children with disabilities.

Holahan, A., & Costenbader, V. (2000). A comparison of developmental gains for preschool children with disabilities in inclusive and self-contained classrooms. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 20(4), 224–235. https://doi.org/10.1177/027112140002000403

Summary: The authors examined outcomes for children with disabilities in inclusive versus segregated settings. The authors found that children with higher social-emotional skills performed better in inclusive settings than segregated ones. Children with lower social-emotional development performed equally well in both types of settings.

Odom, S.L., Zercher, C., Li, S., Marquart, J.M., Sandall, S., & Brown, W.H. (2006). Social acceptance and rejection of preschool children with disabilities: A mixed-method analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98(4), 807–823. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.98.4.807

Summary: The authors found that a substantial number of children with disabilities are accepted by their peers in inclusive preschool settings. However, at least equal numbers of children with disabilities are not accepted by their peers. The authors highlight the importance of early identification and interventions focused on social competence and the development of friendships among children with and without disabilities.

Strain, P.S., & Hoyson, M. (2000). The need for longitudinal, intensive social skill intervention: LEAP follow-up outcomes for children with autism. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 20(2), 116–122. https://doi.org/10.1177/027112140002000207

Summary: Follow-up data at age 10 for six children who participated in inclusive preschool programs indicate positive outcomes, including reduced autism severity, average IQ, positive rating of social behaviors by parents, levels of social interactions similar to typically developing peers in the same settings, and participation in general education classrooms for five of the six children.

Odom, S.L., Vitztum, J., Wolery, R., Lieber, J., Sandall, S., Hanson, M. J., Beckman, P., Schwartz, I., & Horn, E. (2004). Preschool inclusion in the United States: A review of research from an ecological systems perspective. Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 4(1), 17–49. https://doi.org/10.1111/J.1471-3802.2004.00016.x

Summary: Odom and colleagues analyzed the inclusion of preschool children with disabilities within programs alongside typically developing peers. Utilizing Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems framework, they examined factors across multiple levels, including child characteristics, classroom practices, family perspectives, social policy, and cultural influences. The authors found that inclusive settings generally yield positive developmental and behavioral outcomes for all children, though children with disabilities often experience less social integration compared to their typically developing peers.

Warren, S.R., Martinez, R.S., & Sortino, L.A. (2016). Exploring the quality indicators of a successful full-inclusion preschool program. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 30(4), 540–553. https://doi.org/10.1080/02568543.2016.1214651

Summary: The researchers examined a full-inclusion preschool program to identify quality indicators contributing to its success. They found that both children with and without disabilities exhibited significant academic and social gains, which were linked to specific program features such as collaborative teaching, individualized instruction, and a supportive learning environment. The fundings underscore the importance of these elements in fostering effective inclusive early childhood education.

Futterer, J.N., Bulotsky-Shearer, R.J., De Angelis, L., Ullery, M.A., Pena, A., Bayuk, J., & Jacko, V. (2023). Associations between peer play interactions and empathy within an early childhood inclusion program for children with visual impairment. Early Childhood Education Journal, 51(5), 889–898. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-022-01344-z

Summary: The researchers examined the relationship between peer play interactions and empathy development in children with visual impairments within an early childhood inclusion program. They found that positive peer play interactions at the start of the school year were associated with higher empathy levels by year's end, with this association being particularly strong for children with visual impairments. These findings highlight the critical role of interactive peer play in promoting social-emotional development in inclusive settings.

Van Rhijn, T., Osborne, C., Ranby, S., Maich, K., Hall, C., Rzepecki, L., & Hemmerich, A. (2019). Peer play in inclusive child care settings: Assessing the impact of Stay, Play, & Talk, a peer-mediated social skills program. Child Care in Practice, 27(3), 224–238. https://doi.org/10.1080/13575279.2019.1588707

Summary: The findings indicated that children participating in the intervention exhibited significant improvements in social skills—such as communication, cooperation, empathy, and responsibility—and reductions in problem behaviors like hyperactivity and internalizing behaviors, compared to a control group.

Justice, L.M., Logan, J.A.R., Lin, T.J., & Kaderavek, J.N. (2014). Peer effects in early childhood education: testing the assumptions of special-education inclusion. Psychological Science, 25(9), 1722–1729. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797614538978

Summary: They investigated the influence of peer effects on language development within early childhood special education (ECSE) classrooms that included both children with and without disabilities. Analyzing data from 670 preschoolers across 83 classrooms, they found that the average language abilities of classmates in the fall significantly predicted individual language skills by spring, even after accounting for initial skill levels. Notably, children with disabilities benefited more from peers with higher language skills, while those without disabilities were less affected by their peers' language abilities. These findings support the practice of inclusion, suggesting that integrating children with disabilities into classrooms with typically developing peers can enhance language development.

Rea, P.J., McLaughlin, V.L., & Walther-Thomas, C. (2002). Outcomes for students with learning disabilities in inclusive and pullout programs. Exceptional Children, 68(2), 203–222. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440290206800204

Summary: They compared the academic and behavioral outcomes of eighth-grade students with learning disabilities in inclusive classrooms versus pullout special education programs. The findings indicated that students in inclusive settings earned higher grades, achieved comparable or superior standardized test scores, committed no more behavioral infractions, and had better attendance than those in pullout programs. These results suggest that inclusive educational environments may offer more favorable outcomes for students with learning disabilities.

Anderson, K.P. (2021). The relationship between inclusion, absenteeism, and disciplinary outcomes for students with disabilities. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 43(1), 32–59. https://doi.org/10.3102/0162373720968558

Summary: Anderson analyzed five years of data from Michigan's special education students to explore how educational settings influence absenteeism and disciplinary actions. The research revealed that students with disabilities who spent 80% or more of their day in general education classrooms experienced fewer disciplinary incidents and better attendance compared to those in less inclusive environments. However, these benefits were more pronounced for certain groups, notably students with emotional impairments, males, White/Asian students, and those not economically disadvantaged.

Cole, S.M., Murphy, H.R., Frisby, M.B., Grossi, T.A., & Bolte, H.R. (2021). The relationship of special education placement and student academic outcomes. The Journal of Special Education, 54(4), 217–227. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022466920925033

Summary: Cole et al. examined the academic outcomes of Indiana students with disabilities placed in high-inclusion (80% or more time in general education) versus low-inclusion settings from fourth to eighth grade. The findings indicated that students in high-inclusion environments achieved significantly better results in both reading and math assessments compared to their peers in more segregated settings.

Holahan, A., & Costenbader, V. (2000). A comparison of developmental gains for preschool children with disabilities in inclusive and self-contained classrooms. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 20(4), 224–235. https://doi.org/10.1177/027112140002000403

Summary: They found that children with higher initial social and emotional functioning made greater gains in inclusive settings, while those with lower initial functioning showed similar progress in both environments. Additionally, children attending full-day programs exhibited more significant developmental advancements than those in half-day programs. Their findings suggests that inclusive settings and extended program durations can enhance developmental outcomes for preschoolers with disabilities.

Buysse, V., Wesley, P. W., Bryant, D., & Gardner, D. (1999). Quality of early childhood programs in inclusive and noninclusive settings. Exceptional Children, 65(3), 301–314. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440299906500302

Summary: The authors examined factors that affected program quality in EC settings. They found that programs that included at least one child with a disability scored significantly higher on measures of program quality (i.e., Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale [ECERS]; Harms, Clifford, & Cryer, 1998) than programs that did not include children with disabilities. The authors provided multiple explanations for this finding, including:

1. Parents of children with disabilities might seek higher quality programs for their children with unique learning needs
2. Programs for children with disabilities might attract or seek better resources and more funding
3. Programs for children with disabilities might seek more qualified and experienced staff

Soukakou, E.P. (2012). Measuring quality in inclusive preschool classrooms: Development and validation of the Inclusive Classroom Profile (ICP). Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 27(3), 478–488. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2011.12.003

Summary: The author examined an observational measure, the Inclusive Classroom Profile, which was developed based on current research regarding inclusion and using quality indicators that were applicable to groups of children with disabilities. This measure correlated with other, more traditional measures of classroom quality.

Grisham-Brown, J., Cox, M., Gravil, M. & Missall, K. (2010) Differences in child care quality for children with and without disabilities. Early Education and Development, 21(1), 21–37. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409280902783491

Summary: Observations revealed that inclusive classrooms—those serving both children with and without disabilities—achieved higher scores on measures of global quality and language and literacy environments compared to non-inclusive settings. Researchers found a positive correlation between teachers' educational levels and classroom quality, indicating that higher teacher education levels are associated with better classroom environments.

Cross, A.F., Traub, E.K., Hutter-Pishgahi, L., & Shelton, G. (2004). Elements of successful inclusion for children with significant disabilities. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 24(3), 169–183. https://doi.org/10.1177/02711214040240030401

Summary: The researchers identified four critical elements common across successful inclusive programs. First, attitudes, positive perceptions and beliefs among educators and staff regarding inclusion, were fundamental. Second, strong, collaborative partnerships between parents and service providers were essential for addressing children's needs effectively. Third, integrating appropriate therapeutic services within the educational setting supported children's development. Finally, tailoring activities and environments to meet individual children's needs facilitated meaningful participation. Their findings emphasized that successful inclusion relies on a holistic approach, combining supportive attitudes, collaborative relationships, integrated therapies, and individualized adaptations.

Rhoad-Drogalis, A., & Justice, L. M. (2020). Is the proportion of children with disabilities in inclusive preschool programs associated with children's achievement? Journal of Early Intervention, 42(1), 83–96. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053815119873100

Summary: Rhoad-Drogalis and Justice examined whether the proportion of children with disabilities in inclusive preschool classrooms affects language and literacy outcomes for all students. Analyzing data from 516 preschoolers across 75 classrooms, they found that the percentage of children with disabilities—ranging from 7% to 92%—was not significantly related to children's achievements in language, print-concept knowledge, or alphabet knowledge by the end of the academic year. These findings suggest that the presence of children with disabilities in inclusive settings does not negatively impact the academic progress of their peers.

Division for Early Childhood. (2014). DEC recommended practices in early intervention/early childhood special education 2014. Retrieved from http://ectacenter.org/decrp/decrp.asp

Summary: The DEC Recommended Practices were developed to provide guidance to practitioners and families about the most effective ways to improve the learning outcomes and promote the development of young children, birth through 5 years of age, who have or are at risk for developmental delays or disabilities. The DEC Recommended Practices are based on the best available empirical evidence as well as the wisdom and experience of the field.

Odom, S.L., DeKlyen, M., & Jenkins, J.R. (1984). Integrating handicapped and nonhandicapped preschoolers: Developmental impact on the nonhandicapped children. Exceptional Children, 51(1), 41–48. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440298405100106

Summary: Odom, DeKlyen, and Jenkins examined the developmental impact on non-disabled preschoolers when integrated with handicapped peers. They assigned 16 non-disabled children to integrated special education preschool classes and found that this placement did not interfere with their development. This research supports inclusion by demonstrating that integrating disabled and non-disabled preschoolers does not negatively affect the development and leanring.

Rafferty, Y., Piscitelli, V., & Boettcher, C. (2003). The impact of inclusion on language development and social competence among preschoolers with disabilities. Exceptional Children, 69(4), 467–479. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440290306900405

Summary: The authors found that children with severe disabilities in inclusive settings had higher scores on assessments of their language development than children in segregated settings. Preschoolers with less severe disabilities made similar gains across both inclusive and segregated settings. However, children in inclusive settings also displayed more behavior problems. The study suggests that while inclusion can enhance certain developmental outcomes, additional supports and teacher training are needed.

Strain, P.S., & Bovey, E.H. (2011). Randomized, controlled trial of the LEAP model of early intervention for young children with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 31(3), 133–154. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271121411408740

Summary: The authors provide empirical support that children with disabilities (i.e., children with autism, in this study) can make significant progress in inclusive, public-school classrooms with teachers implementing evidencebased practices with high fidelity. In this study, children with autism in classrooms with teachers implementing LEAP with 90% fidelity or higher did better than children with autism in programs with low fidelity. Furthermore, social validity ratings indicated that teachers found the LEAP program to be feasible and related to positive outcomes for their students.

Nahmias, A.S., Kase, C., & Mandell, D.S. (2012). Comparing cognitive outcomes among children with autism spectrum disorders receiving community-based early intervention in one of three placements. Autism, 18(3), 311–320. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361312467865

Summary: They examined the cognitive outcomes of 98 preschool-aged children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) who received community-based early intervention in one of three settings: autism-only, mixed disability, or inclusive classrooms. Controlling for initial cognitive scores and other covariates, the study found that children in inclusive placements exhibited better cognitive outcomes compared to those in mixed disability settings. The findings suggest that inclusive early intervention placements may offer cognitive advantages for children with ASD, particularly for those with greater social and adaptive behavior impairments and baseline language skills.

Green, K.B., Terry, N.P., & Gallagher, P.A. (2014). Progress in language and literacy skills among children with disabilities in inclusive early reading first classrooms. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 33(4), 249–259. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271121413477498

Summary: The authors examined the language and literacy development of 77 preschool children with disabilities in inclusive Early Reading First classrooms, comparing their progress to that of 77 typically developing peers matched by age, teacher, and school. The results indicated that children with disabilities made significant gains in areas such as print awareness and letter recognition, but their overall achievement did not reach the levels of their typically developing peers. The authors suggest that additional targeted interventions may be necessary. The findings highlight that inclusive environments provide opportunities for children with disabilities to access high-quality instruction and interact with typically developing peers, which are essential for developing foundational literacy skills. While the findings suggest that children with disabilities may require additional supports, they underscores the value of inclusion in fostering measurable academic gains for disabled children.

Schepis, M.M., Reid, D.H., Ownbey, J., & Parsons, M.B. (2001). Training support staff to embed teaching within natural routines of young children with disabilities in an inclusive preschool. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 34(3), 313–327. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2001.34-313

Summary: The findings demonstrated that when support staff are trained to embed instructional strategies into natural classroom routines, children with disabilities benefit from increased engagement and skill development within inclusive settings. By integrating teaching seamlessly into everyday activities, the approach ensures that children with disabilities participate meaningfully alongside their typically developing peers. Additionally, the focus on natural routines reinforces the principle of inclusion by emphasizing that specialized support can be delivered in the least restrictive and most integrated environment. This approach highlights the value of professional development for staff as a critical component of fostering effective inclusion.

Gena, A. (2006). The effects of prompting and social reinforcement on establishing social interactions with peers during the inclusion of four children with autism in preschool. International Journal of Psychology, 41(6), 541–554. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207590500492658

Summary: Gena examined the effects of prompting and social reinforcement strategies on improving peer interactions for four preschool children with autism in inclusive classroom settings. The intervention, which involved a teacher using direct prompts and social reinforcement, significantly increased the children's social initiations and their appropriate responses to peers. The results highlighted how structured support can help children with autism engage more effectively with their typically developing classmates. This study supports inclusion by demonstrating that intentional, evidence-based interventions can promote meaningful social interactions within inclusive environments, benefiting children with autism.

Blazer, C. (2017). Review of the research on inclusive classrooms: Academic and social outcomes for students with and without disabilities; best practices; and parents' perceptions of benefits and risks. Research Services, Miami-Dade County Public Schools. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED587808

Summary: In this analysis, the authors found that inclusive classrooms can enhance both academic performance and social development for students with disabilities, while students without disabilities often experience improved social skills and increased empathy. The report also identifies best practices for successful inclusion, such as differentiated instruction, collaborative teaching strategies, and ongoing professional development for educators. Additionally, it highlights that parents generally perceive inclusive education positively, recognizing benefits for all students, though some express concerns about potential challenges in meeting diverse needs.

Diamond, K.E., & Huang, H.H. (2005). Preschoolers' ideas about disabilities. Infants & Young Children, 18(1), 37–46. https://doi.org/10.1097/00001163-200501000-00005

Summary: The authors provide a comprehensive review of the literature and suggest that participation in inclusive preschool programs by children with typical development might positively affect their attitudes regarding children with disabilities. They found that typically developing preschoolers often hold misconceptions about disabilities, but participation in inclusive programs can positively shape their attitudes and understanding. The study emphasizes the importance of inclusive environments in promoting acceptance and accurate knowledge about disabilities among young children.

Innes, F.K., & Diamond, K.E. (1999). Typically developing children's interactions with peers with disabilities: relationships between mothers' comments and children's ideas about disabilities. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 19(2), 103–111. https://doi.org/10.1177/027112149901900204

Summary: The authors found that children's comments regarding pictures of young children with Down syndrome were similar to their mother's comments about the same pictures. They found that children whose mothers provided more frequent and positive comments about disabilities were more likely to engage positively with peers with disabilities. This research underscores the pivotal role of parental attitudes and communication in fostering inclusive behaviors among typically developing children, thereby supporting the success of inclusive educational settings.

Okagaki, L., Diamond, K.E., Kontos, S.J., & Hestenes, L.L. (1998). Correlates of young children's interactions with classmates with disabilities. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 13(1), 67–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0885-2006(99)80026-X

Summary: The authors found that a child's acceptance of people with disabilities was related to his or her parents' beliefs about disability. They found that positive parental beliefs about disabilities and children's favorable attitudes were associated with increased peer interactions during free play.

Zakai-Mashiach, M., Dromi, E., & Al-Yagon, M. (2020). Social inclusion of preschool children with ASD: The role of typical peers. The Journal of Special Education, 55(1), 13–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022466920926132

Summary: Zakai-Mashiach, Dromi, and Al-Yagon examined the natural social interest of 193 typically developing preschoolers toward their peers with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in inclusive settings. They found that the prosocial behaviors of typically developing children, teachers' confidence in their inclusion training, and the specific support needs of children with ASD significantly influenced social interactions. This research supports inclusion by highlighting the pivotal role of typical peers and well-prepared educators in fostering meaningful social engagement for children with ASD in mainstream preschool environments.

Daugherty, S., Grisham-Brown, J., & Hemmeter, M.L. (2001). The effects of embedded skill instruction on the acquisition of target and nontarget skills in preschoolers with developmental delays. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 21(4), 213–221. https://doi.org/10.1177/027112140102100402

Summary: The authors found that children with disabilities could be taught to count objects during typical classroom activities. Furthermore, one child learned nontarget information (i.e., colors).

Grisham-Brown, J., Schuster, J.W., Hemmeter, M.L., & Collins, B.C. (2000). Using an embedding strategy to teach preschoolers with significant disabilities. Journal of Behavioral Education, 10(2–3), 139–162. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1016688130297

Summary: Teachers used embedded instruction to teach two children with disabilities multiple IEP goals during typical classroom activities. Furthermore, teachers implemented the embedded instructional procedures with fidelity.

Grisham-Brown, J., Pretti-Frontczak, K., Hawkins, S.R., & Winchell, B.N. (2009). Addressing Early Learning Standards for All Children Within Blended Preschool Classrooms. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 29(3), 131–142. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271121409333796

Summary: The authors found that embedding intensive instruction into daily activities is effective and efficient for teaching individual skills to children with and without disabilities. They explored strategies for implementing early learning standards in blended preschool classrooms that include both children with and without disabilities. They found that embedding intensive instruction on individualized skills related to common early learning standards during daily activities was both effective and efficient, as children acquired targeted skills in a relatively short time. Their findings supports inclusion by demonstrating that tailored instructional approaches within inclusive settings can meet diverse learning needs and promote progress toward shared educational goals.

Robertson, J., Green, K., Alper, S., Schloss, P.J., & Kohler, F. (2003). Using peer-mediated intervention to facilitate children's participation in inclusive child care activities. Education & Treatment of Children, 26(2), 182–197. https://www.jstor.org/stable/42899744

Summary: The authors investigated the effectiveness of a peer-mediated intervention designed to enhance the participation of preschool children with developmental delays in inclusive childcare settings. The intervention incorporated songs, finger plays, visual aids, and peer verbal cues to encourage engagement during routine activities. Results indicated significant improvements in the children's on-task behavior, interactive play, and appropriate participation during circle and story times. This study supports inclusion by demonstrating that structured peer-mediated strategies can effectively promote active involvement of children with developmental delays in inclusive environments.

Venn, M.L., Wolery, M., Werts, M.G., Morris, A., DeCesare, L.D., & Cuffs, M.S. (1993). Embedding instruction in art activities to teach preschoolers with disabilities to imitate their peers. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 8(3), 277–294. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0885-2006(05)80068-7

Summary: Utilizing a progressive time delay procedure, teachers integrated prompts into art sessions, progressively delaying assistance to encourage independent imitation. The results indicated that this approach led to high levels of accurate peer imitation among children with disabilities, achieved with minimal errors. This study supports inclusion by demonstrating that integrating targeted instructional methods into typical classroom activities can effectively promote social learning and peer interaction for children with disabilities.

Bancroft, J.C., Barton, E., & Schulte, L.E. (2023). Using the system of least prompts to teach pretend play to preschoolers with developmental disabilities in contexts with their peers. Journal of Early Intervention, 46(4), 509–525. https://doi.org/10.1177/10538151231186896

Summary: Bancroft, Barton, and Schulte investigated the effectiveness of the System of Least Prompts (SLP) in teaching pretend play to preschoolers with developmental disabilities within peer-inclusive settings. The SLP approach involves providing minimal assistance and gradually increasing support only as needed, promoting independence in skill acquisition. The study found that implementing SLP led to significant improvements in the children's pretend play abilities, facilitating more meaningful interactions with their peers. These findings support inclusion by demonstrating that structured, minimally intrusive interventions can enhance social engagement and play skills among children in inclusive environments.

Kasari, C., Freeman, S.F., Bauminger, N., & Alkin, M.C. (1999). Parental perspectives on inclusion: effects of autism and down syndrome. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 29(4), 297–305. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1022159302571

Summary: Authors surveyed parents of children with Down syndrome and autism regarding their current placement and their desire to change their placement. Results indicated that parents of children with Down syndrome were most likely to endorse inclusive settings, whereas parents of children with autism were more likely to endorse at least part-time inclusion with peers. Parents of young children and parents who had children in inclusive settings were most likely to have positive views of inclusion.

Rafferty, Y., & Griffin, K.W. (2005). Benefits and risks of reverse inclusion for preschoolers with and without disabilities: perspectives of parents and providers. Journal of Early Intervention, 27(3), 173–192. https://doi.org/10.1177/105381510502700305

Summary: The authors surveyed parents of children with and without disabilities and teachers from an inclusive EC program. Results indicated that parents of children with and without disabilities as well as teachers viewed inclusion favorably and considered it to be beneficial for children with and without disabilities.

Odom, S.L., Hanson, M.J., Lieber, J., Marquart, J., Sandall, S., Wolery, R., Horn, E., Schwartz, I., Beckman, P., Hikido, C., & Chambers, J. (2001). The costs of preschool inclusion. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 21(1), 46–55. https://doi.org/10.1177/027112140102100104

Summary: The authors found that six of the nine inclusive programs they studied were less expensive than self-contained special education placements. The authors also identified specific cost features of inclusive programs.

Odom, S.L., Parrish, T.B., & Hikido, C. (2001). The costs of inclusive and traditional special education preschool services. Journal of Special Education Leadership, 14(1), 33–41. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ627947

Summary: The authors examined the costs of different models of inclusion and traditional special education preschool programs located in five different states. Inclusion was defined as classrooms in which children with disabilities and typically developing children participate together for more than 90% of the time. The authors found lower costs associated with more inclusive programs across public schools, community programs, and Head Start programs. Furthermore, the inclusive preschool models were less expensive for school districts than segregated models.

Division for Early Childhood. (2014). DEC recommended practices in early intervention/early childhood special education 2014. Retrieved from http://ectacenter.org/decrp/decrp.asp

Steed, E.A., Rausch, A., Strain, P.S., Bold, E., & Leech, N. (2022). High-quality inclusion in preschool settings: a survey of early childhood personnel. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 43(2), 142–155. https://doi.org/10.1177/02711214211063921

Summary: Steed, Rausch, Strain, Bold, and Leech surveyed 418 early childhood personnel in a Western state to assess the implementation of high-quality inclusive practices in preschool settings. The findings revealed that early childhood special educators were more likely than related service personnel to implement high-quality inclusion practices. However, both groups reported inconsistent use of teaming practices, and services were often provided inside the classroom with peers, though some support occurred in separate spaces. This study underscores the need for consistent teaming practices and highlights the importance of delivering services within inclusive classroom environments to promote high-quality inclusion.

Fabrizi, S., Tilman, A. L., Donald, E., Balsamo, N., & Connor, A. (2023). SEE Me therapeutic playgroup: A teaming model to promote parent-child interactions. Journal of Early Intervention, 46(3), 356–374. https://doi.org/10.1177/10538151231166594

Summary: Researchers evaluated the effectiveness and feasibility of the SEE Me (Social Emotional Education) Therapeutic Playgroup, an 8-week program designed to enhance parent–child interactions within early intervention services. Utilizing a pretest–posttest mixed-methods design with 28 parent–child dyads and 19 early intervention providers, the study found statistically significant improvements in parent efficacy and parent–child interaction, particularly in affection and responsiveness. Participants reported enhanced child engagement, social interaction, and skill development, highlighting the program's potential to support families in early intervention contexts.

DEC/NAEYC. (2009). Early childhood inclusion: A joint position statement of the Division for Early Childhood (DEC) and the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC). Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, FPG Child Development Institute. Retrieved from https://fpg.unc.edu/publications/early-childhood-inclusion-joint-position-statement-division-early-childhood-dec-and

Summary: The 2009 joint position statement by DEC and NAEYC defines early childhood inclusion and outlines its key components: access, participation, and supports. It emphasizes that inclusion involves ensuring equitable opportunities for all young children, including those with disabilities, to participate meaningfully in early learning settings alongside their peers. The statement also highlights the importance of collaboration among families, educators, and related service providers to create inclusive environments. This document supports inclusion by providing a framework to guide policies and practices that promote the full participation and development of all children.

Guralnick, M., Conner R., Hammond, M., Gottman, J., & Kinnish, K. (1996). Immediate effects of mainstreamed settings on the social interactions and social integration of preschool children. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 100(4), 359–377. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8718991/

Summary: Guralnick, Connor, Hammond, Gottman, and Kinnish investigated the immediate effects of mainstreamed (inclusive) settings on the social interactions and integration of preschool children with and without developmental delays. They established playgroups comprising both typically developing children and those with developmental delays, observing their interactions over a two-week period. The findings indicated that inclusive settings led to higher levels of peer interactions for all children, with typically developing peers facilitating increased social engagement for children with developmental delays. This research supports inclusion by demonstrating that mainstreamed environments can enhance social integration and interaction among preschoolers, benefiting both children with and without developmental delays.

Fryxell, D. & Kennedy, C.H. (1995). Placement along the continuum of services and its impact on students' social relationships. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 20(4), 259–269. https://doi.org/10.1177/154079699602000403

Summary: They compared students in general education classrooms to those in self-contained special education settings, finding that those in inclusive environments had more social contact with non-disabled peers, received greater social support, and had larger friendship networks. This research supports inclusion by highlighting its positive impact on the social integration and relationships of students with severe disabilities.

Freeman, S.F.N., & Alkin, M.C. (2000). Academic and social attainments of Children with mental retardation in general education and special education settings. Remedial and Special Education, 21(1), 3–26. https://doi.org/10.1177/074193250002100102

Summary: The authors found that children in general education classes did not achieve social acceptance ratings as high as their typically developing peers. However, included students performed better than their segregated counterparts on measures of academic achievement and social competence. This research supports inclusion by demonstrating that, despite challenges in social acceptance, inclusive settings can enhance academic performance and social skills for children with mental retardation. However more work is needed to support social acceptance and belonging for all.

Cole, D.A., & Meyer, L.H. (1991). Social integration and severe disabilities: a longitudinal analysis of child outcomes. The Journal of Special Education, 25(3), 340–351. https://doi.org/10.1177/002246699102500306

Summary: Researchers compared the outcomes of 91 children with severe developmental disabilities in integrated versus segregated educational settings. They found that children in integrated settings spent more time with peers and less time alone, leading to improvements in social competence, while those in segregated settings showed a decline in social skills. However, no significant differences were observed in developmental skills between the two groups. This research supports inclusion by demonstrating that inclusive educational environments can enhance social development for children with severe disabilities.

Katz, J. & Mirenda, P. (2002). Including students with developmental disabilities in general education classrooms: social benefits. International Journal of Special Education, 17(2), 13–36. Retrieved from https://scholar.googleusercontent.com/scholar?q=cache:oslZo2WQCfcJ:scholar.google.com/&hl=en&as_sdt=0,34

Summary: Katz and Mirenda reviewed research on the social benefits of including students with developmental disabilities in general education classrooms. They found that inclusive settings enhance social interactions, friendships, and acceptance for students with disabilities, while also promoting positive attitudes and reduced prejudice among their non-disabled peers. The study supports inclusion by highlighting its role in fostering meaningful social relationships and a more accepting school environment for all students.